无主地()是指在法律上不屬於任何人的土地,可被他國占领、控制和拥有。虽然此原则在现代国际法还被应用,但國際公認的無主地越來越少,其影响力与认可已衰落。
18世纪原理
18世纪欧洲法学家認為:可经由三种方式取得土地:
#征服,如英国征服印度;
#割让,包括“自愿的”与“强迫的”割让,如毛利人对于新西兰北岛之“让与”(怀唐伊条约),清朝对于香港之“割让”(南京条约)以及台灣的割讓(馬關條約)等皆是;
#占有“无主土地”。
为了合理化英人占有大洋洲,或欧人之占有整个北美洲的行为,著名法学家瓦特尔(Emmerich De Vattel)专门阐释了无主土地概念。依瓦氏《国家间的法律》(Le Droit des Gens),原住民的土地应区别为“已然垦殖的”(cultivated)与“未垦殖的”(uncultivated)两类。瓦氏认为,欧美主导的国际法应当确认人类对于所栖身、使用的土地负有开发、垦殖的义务,如此,则居无定所的游牧部落失于开发、垦殖土地的义务本身,即意味着可以视他们从未“真正而合法地”占有这些土地。对于“无主土地”,无成型昭彰的社会组织者,则其与土地二者间不得认作国际法上之占有关系,因而其土地乃“无主”土地,根据发现与先占原则,無主地乃向所有殖民者敞开。以澳洲大陆为例,澳大利亚原住民的历史至少有五万年,可他们却不被视为这片大陆的主人,整个大陆乃“无主土地”。
现代应用
1975年,國際法院在「西撒哈拉案」咨詢意見中,提出凡是由部落或有社會及政治組織人民所居住之地,均不具「無主地」之性質,認為西班牙取得西撒哈拉之主權,不是先佔,而是與當地酋長締結協定所取得。1992年,澳大利亚联邦澳大利亚最高法院在著名的“玛寶”案(Mabo v The State of Queensland (No. 2))判决中推翻了该项普通法原则,在法律上确定了澳大利亚乃征服地而非定居地,正式承认了原住民地权(native title)。2001年11月2日,美國人特拉維斯·邁克亨利在部分埃爾斯沃思地(90°W至103°24'W)和部分瑪麗·伯德地(103°24'W至150°W)包括彼得一世島建立私人國家西南極大公國。2014年6月16日,美國人耶利米·希頓在無主土地比爾泰維勒建立私人國家北蘇丹王國。2015年4月13日,捷克人维特·耶德利奇卡在塞爾維亞和克羅地亞交界的無主土地上西加建立了私人國家利伯自由共和國。
參考
相關條目
*比爾泰維勒
*玛丽·伯德地
*太空殖民
文獻
- Connor, Michael. "The invention of terra nullius", Sydney: Macleay Press, 2005.
- Culhane, Dara. The Pleasure of the Crown: Anthropology, Law, and the First Nations. Vancouver: Talon Books, 1998.
- Lindqvist, Sven. Terra nullius. A Journey through No One's Land. Translated by Sarah Death. Granta, London 2007. Pbk 2008. The New Press, New York 2007. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120216132016/http://www.svenlindqvist.net/main.asp?cat=2&lang=2&id=218 Details here]
- Rowse, Tim. "Terra nullius" - The Oxford Companion to Australian History. Ed. Graeme Davison, John Hirst and Stuart Macintyre. Oxford University Press, 2001.
外部連結
*[http://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/disp.pl/au/cases/cth/high%5fct/175clr1.html?query=title+%28+%22mabo%22+%29 玛伯诉昆士兰政府案] (英文)
- Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Social Justice Commissioner, Social Justice Reports, 1994-2009 https://web.archive.org/web/20070830005936/http://www.humanrights.gov.au/social_justice/sj_report/ and Native Title Reports, 1994-2009 http://www.humanrights.gov.au/social_justice/nt_report/index.html
- [https://archive.today/20121127030552/http://www.arts.usyd.edu.au/departs/history/research/projects/fitzmaurice_terra.shtml A History of the concept of "Terra Nullius" The University of Sydney]
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20071231082943/http://www.migrationheritage.nsw.gov.au/exhibitions/objectsthroughtime/objects/bourketerra/ Governor Burke's 1835 Proclamation of terra nullius] NSW Migration Heritage Centre - Statement of Significance
- [http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=4141 Veracini L, An analysis of Michael Conner's denial of terra nullius (The Invention of Terra Nullius)]
- Terror Nullius
- [http://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/disp.pl/au/cases/cth/high%5fct/175clr1.html?query=title+%28+%22mabo%22+%29] High Court of Australia - MABO AND OTHERS v. QUEENSLAND (No. 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1 F.C. 92/014
- [http://www.austlii.edu.au/cgi-bin/disp.pl/au/cases/cth/HCA/1996/40.html?query=title%28wik+peoples+near+queensland%29] High Court of Australia - The Peoples v The State of Queensland & Ors; The Thayorre People v The State of Queensland & Ors [1996] HCA 40 (23 December 1996)
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20070803022821/http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/igeneralinformation/ibbook/Bbook8-2.15.htm] 1975 International Court of Justice - Advisory Opinion regarding Western Sahara
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20120205181214/http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/web/common.nsf/key/HistoryBeforeEuropeanSettlement "History before European Settlement"] - note misspelling as "terra nulius"
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20050414140704/http://www.bosnsw-k6.nsw.edu.au/linkages/IntegratedUnits/aboriginal/invasion_learn03.html material on terra nullius] - NSW Primary School curriculum
- [http://www.law.mq.edu.au/scnsw/Cases1831-32/html/r_v_boatman_or_jackass_and_bul.htm] R. v. Boatman or Jackass and Bulleye - Decisions of the Superior Courts of New South Wales, 1788-1899 (Published by the Division of Law, Macquarie University)
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