納瓦荷語,又称-{zh-hans:纳瓦荷语;zh-hant:納瓦霍語;}-(或;)是一種通行於美國西南部的納-德內語系阿薩巴斯卡-埃雅克語族德内语支的語言,它不論在地理上或語言學上,都可算是南德内语支(德内语支的語言大多通行於美國阿拉斯加和加拿大西北部的地區)的語言。
納瓦荷語的构成相当复杂,太平洋戰爭中曾作为密码在美軍無線電中使用,以增加日本軍破解美方密碼的困難度。直到戰爭結束,這套系統尚未被日本破解。
納瓦荷語的使用者人數,比起其他在通行於美墨邊境以北地區的北美原住民語言都要多。在2007年,有170,717人自稱自己為納瓦荷語的使用者
書寫系統與音系
子音
下表以IPA給出納瓦荷語的子音,並於其旁附上該音書寫時使用的記號:
:
h這個字母,在納瓦荷語正字法中,被用以表示兩個不同的子音,當它出現在詞幹開頭時,它發作,在前綴中或詞幹或單詞之結尾時,它發作。然而,當出現在s代表的音之後時,它記作x而非h,以免與sh產生混淆(像násxéés(意即「我正轉身」)即一例,不能將此字記作náshéés);gh 這個子音在前母音i與e前記作y(在此些音前,顎化,變作),在o前則記作w(在此音前唇化,變作),在a前則記作gh。出現於單詞開頭的喉塞音ʼ 不作表記。
對於 gh這個音,其唇化和顎化皆以其書寫系統表記,其中y表此音之顎化,而w表該音之唇化。此書寫法不分別其他子音的各種變體。
母音
納瓦荷語有四個基本的母音:a、e、i與o。每個母音都分長短音,也分非鼻音和鼻音:
:* a和e等所表示者即為短母音
:* aa和ee等所表示者即為長母音
:* ą和ę等所表示者即為短鼻母音
:* ąą和ęę等所表示者即為長鼻母音
聲調
納瓦荷語有「高聲」和「低聲」兩個聲調。每個音節預設的聲調為低音,高低兩聲在長母音的混合,可得四種可能性:
: 像áá和éé等所表示者即為*高聲
:* 像aa和ee等所表示者即為低聲
:* 像aá和eé等所表示者即為起聲
:* 像áa和ée等所表示者即為落聲
以上這些母音的各種特徵的混合是可能的,就如ą́ą́(此表高聲調之長鼻母音)所表示者一般。
語法
就语言类型学上來講,納瓦荷語是種的多式綜合黏著語,唯其許多的詞綴已「縮略」在一起而使之在某方面與屈折語近似。納瓦荷語的基本語序為主詞─受詞─動詞。德内语支的語言一般使用前綴,這在基本語序為SOV的語言中是不尋常的(此類語言一般傾向使用後綴)。
納瓦荷語是「動詞重心」的語言(verb-heavy),它有許多的動詞,但名詞的數量相對較少。除此名詞與動詞外,納瓦荷語亦有代名詞、有著不同功能的附著詞素(clitic)、指示詞、數詞、後置詞、副詞和連接詞等不同的詞類存在。將名詞和動詞以外的所有詞,都歸入一個他稱之為「質詞」的詞類中。納瓦荷語沒有與英語形容詞相對應的詞類,其形容詞的功能以動詞取代。
參見
*南德内语支
*《獵風行動》
註釋
參考文獻
教育方面
- Blair, Robert W.; Simmons, Leon; & Witherspoon, Gary.(1969). Navaho Basic Course. Brigham Young University Printing Services.
- Goossen, Irvy W.(1967). Navajo made easier: A course in conversational Navajo. Flagstaff, AZ: Northland Press.
- Goossen, Irvy W.(1995). Diné bizaad: Speak, read, write Navajo. Flagstaff, AZ: Salina Bookshelf. ISBN 0-9644189-1-6
- Goossen, Irvy W.(1997). Diné bizaad: Sprechen, Lesen und Schreiben Sie Navajo. Loder, P. B.(transl.). Flagstaff, AZ: Salina Bookshelf.
- Haile, Berard.(1941–1948). Learning Navaho,(Vols. 1–4). St. Michaels, AZ: St. Michael's Mission.
- Platero, Paul R.(1986). Diné bizaad bee naadzo: A conversational Navajo text for secondary schools, colleges and adults. Farmington, NM: Navajo Preparatory School.
- Platero, Paul R.; Legah, Lorene; & Platero, Linda S.(1985). Diné bizaad bee naʼadzo: A Navajo language literacy and grammar text. Farmington, NM: Navajo Language Institute.
- Tapahonso, Luci, & Schick, Eleanor.(1995). Navajo ABC: A Diné alphabet book. New York: Macmillan Books for Young Readers. ISBN 0-689-80316-8
- Witherspoon, Gary.(1985). Diné Bizaad Bóhooʼaah for secondary schools, colleges, and adults. Farmington, NM: Navajo Language Institute.
- Witherspoon, Gary.(1986). Diné Bizaad Bóhooʼaah I: A conversational Navajo text for secondary schools, colleges and adults. Farmington, NM: Navajo Language Institute.
- Wilson, Alan.(1969). Breakthrough Navajo: An introductory course. Gallup, NM: The University of New Mexico, Gallup Branch.
- Wilson, Alan.(1970). Laughter, the Navajo way. Gallup, NM: The University of New Mexico at Gallup.
- Wilson, Alan.(1978). Speak Navajo: An intermediate text in communication. Gallup, NM: University of New Mexico, Gallup Branch.
- Wilson, Garth A.(1995). Conversational Navajo workbook: An introductory course for non-native speakers. Blanding, UT: Conversational Navajo Publications. ISBN 0-938717-54-5.
- Yazzie, Evangeline Parsons, and Margaret Speas (2008). Diné Bizaad Bínáhoo'aah: Rediscovering the Navajo Language. Flagstaff, AZ: Salina Bookshelf, Inc. ISBN 978-1-893354-73-9
語言學方面和其他參考資料
- Akmajian, Adrian; & Anderson, Stephen.(1970). On the use of the fourth person in Navajo, or Navajo made harder. International Journal of American Linguistics, 36(1), 1–8.
- Creamer, Mary Helen.(1974). Ranking in Navajo nouns. Navajo Language Review, 1, 29–38.
- Faltz, Leonard M.(1998). The Navajo verb: A grammar for students and scholars. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1901-7(hb), ISBN 0-8263-1902-5(pbk)
- Frishberg, Nancy.(1972). Navajo object markers and the great chain of being. In J. Kimball(Ed.), Syntax and semantics(Vol. 1, p.259–266). New York: Seminar Press.
- Grimes, Barbara F.(Ed.)。(2000). Ethnologue: Languages of the world,(14th ed.). Dallas, TX: SIL International. ISBN 1-55671-106-9.(Online edition: http://www.ethnologue.com/ , accessed on November 19, 2004)。
- Hale, Kenneth L.(1973). A note on subject–object inversion in Navajo. In B. B. Kachru, R. B. Lees, Y. Malkiel, A. Pietrangeli, & S. Saporta(Eds.), Issues in linguistics: Papers in honor of Henry and Renée Kahane(p.300–309). Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1945). Navaho phonology. University of New Mexico publications in anthropology,(No. 1)。
- Hoijer, Harry.(1945). Classificatory verb stems in the Apachean languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 11(1), 13–23.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1945). The Apachean verb, part I: Verb structure and pronominal prefixes. International Journal of American Linguistics, 11(4), 193–203.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1946). The Apachean verb, part II: The prefixes for mode and tense. International Journal of American Linguistics, 12(1), 1–13.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1946). The Apachean verb, part III: The classifiers. International Journal of American Linguistics, 12(2), 51–59.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1948). The Apachean verb, part IV: Major form classes. International Journal of American Linguistics, 14(4), 247–259.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1949). The Apachean verb, part V: The theme and prefix complex. International Journal of American Linguistics, 15(1), 12–22.
- Hoijer, Harry.(1970). A Navajo lexicon. University of California Publications in Linguistics(No. 78). Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Kari, James.(1975). The disjunct boundary in the Navajo and Tanaina verb prefix complexes. International Journal of American Linguistics, 41, 330–345.
- Kari, James.(1976). Navajo verb prefix phonology. Garland Publishing Co.
- McDonough, Joyce.(2003). The Navajo sound system. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 1-4020-1351-5(hb); ISBN 1-4020-1352-3(pbk)
- Reichard, Gladys A.(1951). Navaho grammar. Publications of the American Ethnological Society(Vol. 21). New York: J. J. Augustin.
- Sapir, Edward.(1932). Two Navaho puns. Language, 8(3), 217-220.
- Sapir, Edward, & Hoijer, Harry.(1942). Navaho texts. William Dwight Whitney series, Linguistic Society of America.
- Sapir, Edward, & Hoijer, Harry.(1967). Phonology and morphology of the Navaho language. Berkeley: University of California Press.
- Speas, Margaret.(1990). Phrase structure in natural language. Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 0-7923-0755-0
- Wall, C. Leon, & Morgan, William.(1994). Navajo-English dictionary. New York: Hippocrene Books. ISBN 0-7818-0247-4.(Originally published [1958] by U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Branch of Education, Bureau of Indian Affairs)。
Webster, Anthony K.(2004). Coyote Poems: Navajo Poetry, Intertextuality, and Language Choice. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 28*, 69-91.
Webster, Anthony K.(2006). "ALk'idaa' Ma'ii Jooldlosh, Jini": Poetic Devices in Navajo Oral and Written Poetry. Anthropological Linguistics, 48(3)*, 233-265.
Webster, Anthony K.(2009). Explorations in Navajo Poetry and Poetics*. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.
- Witherspoon, Gary.(1971). Navajo categories of objects at rest. American Anthropologist, 73, 110-127.
- Witherspoon, Gary.(1977). Language and art in the Navajo universe. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08966-8; ISBN 0-472-08965-X
- Yazzie, Sheldon A.(2005). Navajo for Beginners and Elementary Students. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Press.
- Young, Robert W.(2000). The Navajo verb system: An overview. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-2172-0(hb); ISBN 0-8263-2176-3(pbk)
- Young, Robert W., & Morgan, William, Sr.(1987). The Navajo language: A grammar and colloquial dictionary(rev. ed.). Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1014-1
- Young, Robert W.; Morgan, William; & Midgette, Sally.(1992). Analytical lexicon of Navajo. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 0-8263-1356-6; ISBN 0825313566
外部連結
- [http://www.gomyson.com/ Hózhǫ́ Náhásdlį́į́ʼ - Language of the Holy People(有著Flash、影音和納瓦荷語學習幫助的納瓦荷語網站)] , gomyson.com
- [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists_for_Den%C3%A9-Yeniseian_languages Navajo Swadesh vocabulary list of basic words] (改自維基辭典的[http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh-list appendix] 一文)
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20061102073636/http://www.blackmesais.org/Dictionary.htm Some English - Diné Dictionary (pronunciations)], blackmesais.org
- [http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/course/chapter11/navajo/navajo.html Contrasts between Navajo consonants] (Peter Ladefoged的聲音檔). humnet.ucla.edu
- [http://www.sanjuan.k12.ut.us/linknavj.html Navajo Language & Bilingual Links] (聖胡安學區(San Juan school district)之資料). sanjuan.k12.ut.us
- [http://www.navajolanguageacademy.org Navajo Language Academy] , navajolanguageacademy.org
- [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/TIL_17.html Tuning in to Navajo: The Role of Radio in Native Language Maintenance] , jan.ucc.nau.edu
- [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~jar/TIL_20.html An Initial Exploration of the Navajo Nation's Language and Culture Initiative] , jan.ucc.nau.edu
- [http://cdte.dinecollege.edu Báʼóltaʼí Adoodleełgi Bínaʼniltingo Bił Hazʼą́(Center for Diné Teacher Education)] , dinecollege.edu
- [http://www.languagegeek.com/dene/dine/dine_bizaad.html Languagegeek Unicode fonts and Navajo keyboard layouts] , languagegeek.com
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20080511192845/http://cdte.dinecollege.edu/navajofonts.htm Navajo fonts], dinecollege.edu
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20050321120631/http://library.thinkquest.org/J002073F/thinkquest/Language.htm The Navajo Language], library.thinkquest.org
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20060212224236/http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/naind/html/na_025300_navajolangua.htm Navajo language (Encyclopedia of North American Indians)], college.hmco.com
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20070312021728/http://libxml.unm.edu/oanm/nmu/nmu1mss672bc.html Inventory of the Robert W. Young Papers, 1860-1992(bulk 1823-1980)], libxml.unm.edu
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20080709030512/http://www.ou.edu/worldlit/onlinemagazine/2007September/webster.htm Reflections on Navajo Poetry], ou.edu
語言學方面之資料
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20120312065350/http://www.museunacional.ufrj.br/linguistica/congresso/1/txnavar.pdf Navajo reflections of a general theory of lexical argument structure](Ken Hale & Paul Platero), museunacional.ufrj.br
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20150823194811/http://www.museunacional.ufrj.br/linguistica/congresso/1/txnavtsl.pdf Remarks on the syntax of the Navajo verb part I: Preliminary observations on the structure of the verb](Ken Hale), museunacional.ufrj.br
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20120703222655/http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~carlota/papers/Nphon.pdf The Navajo Prolongative and Lexical Structure](Carlotta Smith), cc.utexas.edu
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20110928005548/http://linguistics.byu.edu/faculty/eddingtond/navajo.pdf A Computational Analysis of Navajo Verb Stems](David Eddington & Jordan Lachler), linguistics.byu.edu
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20121212023309/http://www.linguistics.ucsb.edu/research/Chee%20et%20al_vol15.pdf Grammaticization of Tense in Navajo: The Evolution of nt’éé](Chee, Ashworth, Buescher & Kubacki), linguistics.ucsb.edu
- [https://urresearch.rochester.edu/retrieve/6548/BLS+McD&Suss.pdf A methodology for the investigation of speaker’s knowledge of structure in Athabaskan] (Joyce McDonough & Rachel Sussman), urresearch.rochester.edu
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20120307084257/http://www.bcs.rochester.edu/cls/f2000n2/mcdonough.pdf How to use Young and Morgan’s The Navajo Language](Joyce McDonough), bcs.rochester.edu
- [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304054057/http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~carlota/papers/Time%20in%20Navajo.pdf Time in Navajo: Direct and Indirect Interpretation](Carlota S. Smith, Ellavina T. Perkins, Theodore B. Fernald), cc.utexas.edu
- [http://www.language-archives.org/language/nav OLAC Resources in and about the Navajo language]
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